The sample mean of a set of N measurements drawn from a circular uniform distribution is defined as:

"b", where "b" is a bit drawn independently from a uniform distribution.

The observations in a given cluster are independently drawn from a normal distribution with identity covariance matrix and appropriate mean vector.

If is drawn from a Dirichlet distribution, then is completely neutral.

The table below shows the standard scores that define stens and the percent of individuals drawn from a normal distribution that would receive sten score.

More specifically, let be a set of i.i.d. unobserved univariate drawn from a stable distribution.

In particular, when results are drawn from a distribution that is symmetrical about its mean, the counternull value is exactly twice the observed effect size.

For samples, if it is known that they are drawn from a symmetric distribution, the sample mean can be used as an estimate of the population mode.

We assume throughout this section that is a random sample drawn from a continuous distribution with cdf .

In the next iteration, the variance parameters, 2are incremented by an amount drawn at random from a triangular distribution with range to form .