This demand causes a voltage to build up, due to transportation of oxygen ions through the sensor layer.

The first is that the new superconducting materials require particular concentrations of oxygen ions.

Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it reacts with electrons to create oxygen ions.

The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode.

In the 1980s, a "plasma fountain" of hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions was discovered flowing from the Earth's north pole.

The radius of the oxygen ion, however, is only 1.36 Å and the Fe cations are big enough to cause some variations.

The oxidation reaction between the oxygen ions and the hydrogen produces heat as well as water and electricity.

The electrolyte is a dense layer of ceramic that conducts oxygen ions.

The radiation was of ionizing nature, and produced negative oxygen ions (free radicals).

These paths are created by applying sufficiently large voltages, which drive the movement of oxygen ions through a redox (reduction-oxidaton) process.