The Harter Act's protection of the weak betrays its perception of the bill of lading as a contract for the carriage of goods, whose terms are dictated by the carrier.

Note that the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 (which amends the Doctrine of Privity) does NOT apply to contracts for the carriage of goods by sea.

A number of regulations govern international trade and contracts for the carriage of goods and you should be aware of how they are interpreted and implemented, as well as being familiar with the standard types of contract.

The standard form of contract is a bill of lading which, in international shipping law, is simply a contract for the carriage of goods entered into between the shipper and the carrier that is not a charter party.

The final major step forward is the inclusion of insurance contracts, which has been the subject of lengthy negotiations between the Member States - Commissioner Frattini referred to this - and the inclusion of contracts for the carriage of goods.

The Hague Rules embodied in the 1924 Brus-sels Convention on Bills of Lading contain no express internationality requirement at all, though clearly directed at contracts for the carriage of goods by sea from one State to another, a point made explicit by the Visby amendments.